Social Inequality and Racism: The Frameworks and Impact of Racial Profiling in Canadian Policing

Introduction

As of 2021, more than half of all hate crimes in Canada were motivated by racial discrimination (Ball, p. 323). Racial profiling in Canadian policing has become an increasingly pressing issue, reflecting the Neo-Weberian theory of racialization and Max Weber's distinctions between class, social status, and political power. Together, these frameworks help explain how systemic bias and racism within policing contribute to the abuse of authority and growing public safety concerns among racialized communities in Canada. 

What was originally referred to as “racial” or “visible” minorities is now more commonly known as “racialized people”. This is due to how Weber's idea of racialization depicts how society divides people based on perceived racial differences (Ball, p. 19). This differs from "visible” or “racial” minorities in that it refers to the process rather than the condition of being a person of colour (Ball & Lyon, p. 42). Webber's understanding of racialization, when combined with prejudices and persistent biases, work to explain the development and persistence of racial profiling. As a result of these biases, racial profiling reflects the selective targeting of individuals by police authorities based on their race (Afrifah et al., p. 66). 

Max Weber's distinctions between class, social status, and political power illustrate how various forms of social influence interact to shape stereotypical views that contribute to racial profiling. According to Weber, class reflects one's economic position (wealth), status represents social prestige within a hierarchy, and party refers to political power and the ability to influence laws (pp. 114-124). Together, these dimensions highlight the structural forces that reinforce power imbalances and contribute to systemic discrimination within society, working alongside racial discrimination. 

Literature Review

Systemic racism is the integration of racial prejudice into a society's structures, institutions, policies, and practices (Eid et al., p. 13). Racial profiling is a clear example of this, as demonstrated in a Toronto Star investigation, which found that Black individuals are significantly more likely to be stopped by police and charged with crimes when compared to white individuals (Afrifah et al., p. 77). Further, Canadian studies have discovered that Black and Middle Eastern drivers, regardless of age or sex, are far more likely to be stopped than other drivers (8.8% and 12.3%, respectively) (Adjei et al., p. 226). These findings point to an increase in selective arrests in Canada and reinforce the argument that racialization, when coupled with bias within political structures such as policing, produces harmful outcomes. 

Eid et al. further supports this view by analyzing systemic racism through a macrosociological lens. They emphasize that racial profiling often takes subtle, difficult-to-prove forms through a large scale, which complicates efforts to show that police actions are racially motivated rather than based on reasonable suspicion. “Although some interventions may follow real infractions, systemic racial profiling occurs when racialized individuals face greater scrutiny or harsher penalties for the same offenses, exposing a persistent double standard” (p. 9). This macrosociological lens is further explored through research highlighting the large-scale patterns of under-representation for missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls within policing (Ball & Lyon, p. 334). 

These findings show how political power, per Weber’s theory of social stratification, influences racial profiling and how race and class are closely linked (Ball & Lyon, p. 351). Weber’s framework highlights the overlap of class and racialization in racial profiling. As Tator and Henry argue, dominant social classes frequently portray poor people as “disposable” and unworthy. In Canada, police focus more on criminality among Black and minority groups than on white-collar crime, reflecting a capitalist system based on social stratification, wealth, and white privilege that marginalizes people of colour (p. 10). As a result of these commonalities within class and racialization, people of colour are perceived with a larger set of bias leading to an unfair treatment with the police. 

Afrifah et al.’s research further reinforces this point, noting that “while White individuals with high education and income were less likely to have contact with the police, Black individuals with similar socioeconomic status were more likely to experience such contact” (p. 73). This supports the argument that racial profiling is shaped not only by race but also by stereotypes connected to class, and that these biases significantly influence the safety and treatment of people of colour during police interactions.

Critical Analysis

Due to growing systemic biases within policing and the rise of racial profiling, racialized individuals in Canada face heightened risks to their safety. Recent studies have shown that although Black individuals represented just 2.5% of Canada’s population as of 2006, they made up 8.4% of the federal prison population, indicating they were incarcerated at a rate 3.36 times higher than their share of the general population. These rates have only increased throughout the years (Afrifah et al., p. 69). This significant overrepresentation highlights the long-term effects of racial profiling and its role in the continued marginalization of people of colour, particularly Black individuals. According to the Structured Disadvantage Approach, such systemic patterns of inequality reinforce the social and economic disadvantages faced by marginalized groups, making it more difficult for them to escape cycles of discrimination and criminalization. 

Due to social inequalities evident in racial profiling, including disproportionately high arrest rates among racialized individuals and inadequate attention to missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls, people of colour receive less safety support compared to white individuals. As a result, there is an increase within a lack of trust for government administrations such as police systems. This disparity causes vulnerable populations to lose faith in the police, therefore hurting public safety initiatives. As a result, leading to a distrust within police, and a lower likelihood to report crimes or cooperate with law enforcement in investigating instances (Ball & Lyon, p. 120).

Additionally, the rise within racial profiling in Canada can have lasting impacts on social impressions, leading to a risk of higher racism and discrimination throughout not only police systems but also society as a whole. According to Ball and Lyon, the normalization of racial profiling and racism has profoundly harmful effects, influencing not only how people of colour are perceived by others but also how they view themselves. This racism within systems such as the police can lead to racialized people internalizing negative views of themselves (p. 42). These negative self-perceptions increase the likelihood of self-fulfilling prophecy, where marginalized individuals may inadvertently confirm these harmful beliefs through criminal behavior (p. 147). Consequently, rather than resolving racial profiling, this cycle perpetuates and intensifies stereotypical attitudes along with crime rates. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, racial profiling in Canadian policing stems from systemic racism and socioeconomic inequities that connect with class and political power. This has resulted in disproportionate targeting, imprisonment, and marginalization of racialized groups and a risk within safety. To address these difficulties, institutional prejudices within policing and society must be identified and dismantled.

Reference List

Tator, C., & Henry, F. (2006). Racial profiling in Canada: Challenging the myth of “a few bad apples” (1st ed.). In C. Smith & M. Brown (Eds.), University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442678972

Adjei, P. B. et al. (2020). Racial Erasure: The Silence of Social Work on Police Racial Profiling in Canada. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 5(4), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00136-y 

Eid, P. et al. (2011). Racial profiling and systemic discrimination of racialized youth: report of the consultation on racial profiling and its consequences (1st ed.). Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse. https://books-scholarsportal-info.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/uri/ebooks/ebooks0/gibson_cppc/2011-07-07/1/10471144 

Afrifah, M. et al. (2021). Racial Discrimination in the Canadian Criminal justice system: How anti-black racism by the Toronto police harms us all. Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social, 38(2), 63–86. https://doi-org.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/10.7202/1086120ar 

Weber, M. (1947). Status groups and classes. In A. M. Henderson & T. Parsons (Trans.), The theory of social and economic organization (pp. 114–124). Oxford University Press.

Ball, J., Tepperman, L. & Lyon, K. (2025). The Stacked Deck, 3rd Ed. Oxford University Press Canada.